-
Proto-writing ⇒ Communication via mnemonic symbols. These systems lacked the capacity to fully encode the nuances of spoken language, including grammar and vocabulary.
Examples of such systems:
- Jiahu symbols ⇒ 7ᵗʰ millennium BC, carved into tortoise shells, northern China.
- Vinca symbols ⇒ 6ᵗʰ–5ᵗʰ millennium BC, central and southeastern Europe.
- Indus script ⇒ Indus Valley Civilization, 2600–2000 BC.
These systems worked fine for sharing basic ideas but couldn’t express complex thoughts, since they relied on a set of pre-defined symbols.
-
Transition from proto-writing to true writing included the development of grammatical structures and phonetic representation. This major leap occurred in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), driven by the growing need to track goods, manage labor, and record commercial transactions.
The Sumerian script, which later evolved into cuneiform, first appeared around 3400–3200 BC.
Evolution of cuneiform:
- Clay tokens (8000–3500 BC): 3D accounting tokens used for trade and tracking.
- Proto-cuneiform (3500–3000 BC): 2D pictographic signs pressed into clay tablets.
Most of the cuneiform tablets have been discovered in the Sumerian city-state of Uruk, located in modern-day Iraq.
Thanks to extensive research, cuneiform was deciphered in the 19ᵗʰ century. A “Rosetta Stone”-like artifact played a key role in this process. Check out this great video for more info.
-
Slight tangent: I explored a bit about what “cuneiform numbers” are. Turns out, it’s a much better number system than Roman numerals — especially for writing larger numbers — due to its simplicity and structure.
It was a base-60 system called sexagesimal. This is likely why we have:
- 60 seconds in a minute
- 60 minutes in an hour
- 360 degrees in a circle
The base-60 system made calculations easier and more flexible. The Babylonians used it for advanced astronomical tracking — for example, to track Jupiter.
Interestingly, while the system didn’t have a concept of zero, it used a blank space as a placeholder to indicate the absence of a digit — though only in the middle of a number, not at the beginning or end.
Check out this great video on cuneiform numbers for more info.